Application Security Testing (AST) is a crucial component of IT security, focusing on identifying and mitigating vulnerabilities and weaknesses within software applications. Its primary goal is to ensure that applications are resistant to threats and can withstand malicious attacks, thereby protecting sensitive data and maintaining the integrity of the software.
The primary objectives of AST are:
Vulnerability Identification: AST is used to discover security vulnerabilities and weaknesses within software applications. This includes common issues such as code injection, authentication flaws, and data leakage.
Compliance: AST plays a critical role in ensuring compliance with industry regulations and standards (e.g., GDPR, HIPAA). It helps organizations avoid legal and financial consequences related to data breaches.
Risk Mitigation: It helps in assessing and prioritizing identified vulnerabilities based on their severity, thereby allowing organizations to focus their resources on addressing the most critical risks first.
Prevent Exploitation: By finding and fixing vulnerabilities before they can be exploited by malicious actors, AST serves as a proactive defense mechanism, reducing the risk of security breaches.
Quality Assurance: Security is a crucial aspect of software quality. AST ensures that applications not only function correctly but also do so securely, enhancing the overall quality of the software.
The evolution of Application Security Testing from manual to automated methods has been driven by the need for faster, more accurate, and comprehensive security assessments in an ever-expanding digital landscape. Here's a breakdown of this evolution:
Manual Testing
In the early days, security testing was predominantly a manual process. Human testers would manually examine the application's code, architecture, and configurations to identify vulnerabilities.
While effective to some extent, manual testing was time-consuming and prone to human error. It couldn't keep up with the rapid development cycles of modern applications.
Static Application Security Testing (SAST)
SAST tools emerged as a step towards automation. These tools analyze the application's source code, bytecode, or binary code without executing the software.
They identify vulnerabilities by examining code patterns and potential issues. SAST is faster than manual testing but may produce false positives and lacks runtime context.
Dynamic Application Security Testing (DAST)
DAST tools shifted the focus to the runtime environment. They test applications while they are running and interacting with external components.
DAST is effective in identifying vulnerabilities like injection attacks and broken authentication. However, it may not find design or logic flaws.
Interactive Application Security Testing (IAST)
IAST combines elements of both SAST and DAST. It observes the application during runtime, much like DAST, but also looks at the code as SAST does.
IAST provides a more comprehensive view of security issues but can be complex to set up.
Continuous Integration/Continuous Delivery (CI/CD) Integration
Automation is further enhanced by integrating security testing into CI/CD pipelines. Security scans are triggered automatically with each code commit or deployment, ensuring security is a part of the development process from the beginning.
This real-time integration minimizes the chances of vulnerabilities going unnoticed.
Machine Learning and AI
Modern AST tools leverage machine learning and artificial intelligence to improve accuracy. They can analyze large codebases quickly, identify patterns, and adapt to emerging threats.
Machine learning also helps in reducing false positives and streamlining the prioritization of vulnerabilities.
Application Security Testing is integral to the software development lifecycle for several reasons:
Early Detection: AST starts early in the development process, allowing vulnerabilities to be identified and resolved before they make their way into production. This reduces the cost and effort required to fix issues later in the development cycle.
Comprehensive Coverage: AST tools can scan large and complex codebases comprehensively, which is often impractical for manual testing. This ensures that no stone is left unturned in the quest for vulnerabilities.
Shift-Left Approach: The shift-left approach integrates security into the development process from the outset, ensuring that security is not an afterthought. Developers are made aware of security best practices and can address issues in real-time.
Risk Reduction: By identifying and mitigating vulnerabilities during development, AST reduces the likelihood of security breaches and the associated damage to an organization's reputation and finances.
Continuous Improvement: With the integration of AST into Continuous Integration/Continuous Delivery (CI/CD) pipelines, security testing becomes an ongoing and iterative process. This fosters a culture of continuous improvement and security awareness.
Regulatory Compliance: Many industries have strict regulatory requirements regarding data security. AST helps organizations meet these compliance standards, avoiding legal consequences and penalties.
Competitive Advantage: Demonstrating a commitment to security through AST can be a competitive advantage. It builds trust with customers, partners, and stakeholders, potentially leading to increased business opportunities.
Static Application Security Testing (SAST)
SAST, also known as white-box testing, is a static analysis methodology that examines the source code, bytecode, or binary code of an application without executing it. It works by scanning the codebase for potential security vulnerabilities, design flaws, and coding errors. This approach takes a transparent and internal view of the application's code. Testers have full access to the source code to understand its internal workings, analyze code structure, logic, and potential vulnerabilities based on known patterns and rules.
Functionalities:
SAST tools analyze the code from a security perspective and perform the following functionalities:
Code Scanning: SAST tools scan the entire codebase, including dependencies, to identify vulnerabilities and coding issues.
Pattern Recognition: They use predefined patterns and rules to recognize potential security weaknesses, such as SQL injection, cross-site scripting (XSS), and improper access control.
Code Flow Analysis: SAST tools analyze the flow of data and control within the code to understand how data is handled and identify potential security risks.
Use Cases for SAST:
Early Bug Detection: Identifying security vulnerabilities in the development phase, allowing developers to fix issues before they become critical.
Secure Code Reviews: Conducting secure code reviews to ensure that code is developed with security in mind.
Compliance: Ensuring compliance with security coding standards and industry regulations.
The Pros of SAST:
Early Detection: Finds vulnerabilities in the development phase, reducing the cost and effort of fixing issues later in the lifecycle.
Comprehensive: Scans the entire codebase, including third-party libraries and frameworks, providing comprehensive coverage.
Static Analysis: Analyzes code statically, which means it can catch vulnerabilities without executing the application.
Integration: Easily integrates into the development process, including CI/CD pipelines, for continuous security assessment.
Consistency: Provides consistent results, reducing the subjectivity associated with manual code reviews.
The Cons of SAST:
False Positives/ Negatives: SAST tools may generate false positives (reporting non-existent issues) or miss certain vulnerabilities (false negatives).
Limited Runtime Context: Lacks the runtime context, making it challenging to identify issues like configuration errors or business logic flaws.
Complex Setup: Setting up SAST tools and configuring them correctly can be complex, requiring expertise.
Limited Language Support: Some SAST tools may have limited support for certain programming languages or frameworks.
In summary, Static Application Security Testing (SAST) is a white-box testing methodology that analyzes source code for security vulnerabilities and design flaws. It excels at early bug detection, ensures comprehensive coverage, and integrates well into the development process. However, it may produce false positives, lacks runtime context, and can be complex to set up.
Dynamic Application Security Testing (DAST)
DAST is a black-box testing methodology that assesses the security of an application from the outside, like an attacker would. It tests an application in its running state, examining it for vulnerabilities by interacting with the application as an external user would, without access to the source code. DAST provides real-time insights into an application's security posture from an external perspective, providing advantages including:
Realistic Testing: DAST mimics real-world attacks, making it effective at finding vulnerabilities that may be missed in static analysis.
Runtime Context: It identifies vulnerabilities that can only be observed during application runtime, such as those related to configuration or business logic.
External Threat Simulation: DAST assesses how an application responds to external threats, helping organizations understand their security from an attacker's viewpoint.
Functionalities:
DAST encompasses several functionalities:
Crawling: DAST tools crawl through the application to discover all available web pages, forms, and functionality.
Fuzz Testing: They input various data types and payloads into input fields to identify vulnerabilities like SQL injection, cross-site scripting (XSS), and buffer overflows.
Session Handling: DAST tools can manage user sessions to simulate various user interactions and authentication scenarios.
Scripting: DAST can use scripts to automate testing processes and simulate complex attack scenarios.
Memory Leak Detection: While not a primary focus, some DAST tools may detect memory-related issues by monitoring application behavior.
Use Cases For DAST:
Web Application Security: Assessing the security of web applications, including websites and web services.
Penetration Testing: Conducting simulated attacks to identify vulnerabilities and weaknesses in an application's security.
Security Audits: Periodic audits to ensure that an application remains secure against evolving threats.
Aspects Covered by DAST:
Injection Attacks: Detects vulnerabilities like SQL injection and command injection.
Cross-Site Scripting (XSS): Identifies XSS vulnerabilities that could be used for client-side attacks.
Authentication and Authorization: Assesses access control and privilege escalation issues.
Session Management: Tests for session fixation, hijacking, and other session-related vulnerabilities.
Input Validation: Checks how the application handles user inputs and potential data manipulation.
Configuration Errors: Identifies misconfigurations that can lead to security weaknesses.
The Pros of DAST:
Realistic Testing: It simulates real-world attacks, providing insights into how an application responds to external threats.
No Source Code Required: DAST doesn't require access to the application's source code, making it suitable for third-party assessments.
Comprehensive Coverage: It tests the entire application, including both code and configurations.
Dynamic Analysis: DAST identifies runtime vulnerabilities and behavior, complementing static analysis.
The Cons of DAST:
False Positives/Negatives: Like all testing methods, DAST can produce false positives and miss certain vulnerabilities.
Resource Intensive: DAST scans can be resource-intensive, potentially impacting application performance during testing.
Limited Testing Scope: DAST primarily focuses on web applications and may not cover other parts of an IT environment.
Limited Code Insight: It doesn't provide insights into code-level vulnerabilities or design flaws.
In summary, Dynamic Application Security Testing (DAST) is a black-box testing methodology that assesses an application's security from an external perspective in real-time. It simulates real-world attacks, identifies runtime vulnerabilities, and complements static analysis. However, it may produce false positives, has limited code insight, and can be resource intensive.
Interactive Application Security Testing (IAST)
IAST is a modern application security testing methodology that combines elements of both static analysis and dynamic analysis. It works by observing the application during runtime, much like Dynamic Application Security Testing (DAST), but also looking at the code as in Static Application Security Testing (SAST). This hybrid approach provides a more comprehensive view of security issues.
Functionalities:
IAST offers the following functionalities:
Runtime Analysis: It monitors the application during execution to identify vulnerabilities and assess how the application behaves in real-time.
Code Analysis: IAST examines the application's source code or bytecode, allowing it to understand the code's structure and logic.
Data Flow Analysis: It analyzes the flow of data within the application, helping to identify vulnerabilities related to data handling.
Use Cases for IAST:
IAST is suitable for various use cases, including:
Web Application Security: Assessing the security of web applications and APIs by monitoring their behavior and code.
DevOps Integration: IAST can be integrated into CI/CD pipelines, providing continuous security assessment during development and deployment.
Penetration Testing: Identifying vulnerabilities and weaknesses in applications through simulated attacks.
The Pros of IAST:
Real-Time Detection: It identifies vulnerabilities as they occur during runtime, enabling immediate remediation.
Fewer False Positives: IAST typically generates fewer false positives compared to traditional DAST or SAST tools.
DevOps Integration: IAST can seamlessly integrate into DevOps processes, enabling continuous security testing.
Comprehensive Analysis: IAST provides a comprehensive view of an application's security by combining runtime analysis with code inspection.
The Cons of IAST:
Complex Setup: Setting up IAST tools can be more complex than traditional SAST or DAST tools, requiring expert configuration.
Resource Intensive: IAST scans can be resource-intensive and may impact application performance during testing.
Limited Language Support: Some IAST tools may have limited support for certain programming languages or frameworks.
Cost: IAST tools often come with a higher price tag compared to traditional AST solutions.
In summary, Interactive Application Security Testing (IAST) is a hybrid methodology that combines runtime analysis with code inspection to provide a comprehensive view of an application's security. It offers real-time detection, fewer false positives, and DevOps integration but can be complex to set up, resource-intensive, and relatively expensive.
Mobile Application Security Testing (MAST)
Mobile Application Security Testing (MAST) is a specialized security testing methodology focused on assessing the security of mobile applications. It involves a combination of static analysis, dynamic analysis, and behavioral testing to identify vulnerabilities and weaknesses in mobile apps.
Functionalities:
MAST includes the following functionalities:
Static Analysis: Examines the source code or binary of a mobile app to identify potential security vulnerabilities, such as improper data storage, insecure coding practices, and hardcoded credentials.
Dynamic Analysis: Analyzes the app's behavior during runtime to identify vulnerabilities related to network communication, data leakage, and improper access controls.
Behavioral Testing: Tests how the app interacts with the device's hardware and software, looking for issues like unauthorized access to device resources, excessive permissions, or insecure data handling.
Use Cases for MAST:
MAST is used for:
Mobile App Security Assessment: Assessing the security of mobile applications before they are released to the public.
Penetration Testing: Conducting simulated attacks to identify vulnerabilities and weaknesses in mobile apps.
App Store Compliance: Ensuring that mobile apps comply with app store security requirements.
How MAST Addresses Mobile-Specific Security Concerns:
Mobile applications introduce unique security challenges, including:
Data Privacy: Mobile apps often handle sensitive user data, such as location information, contacts, and personal messages, making data privacy a significant concern.
Insecure Communication: Mobile apps frequently communicate with remote servers, making them susceptible to network attacks if encryption and secure communication practices are not implemented.
Authentication and Authorization: Ensuring secure user authentication and proper authorization is essential to prevent unauthorized access to app features and data.
Mobile Device Security: Mobile apps can interact with device components like cameras, microphones, and GPS. If not properly secured, these interactions can lead to privacy breaches.
App Permissions: Mobile apps request various permissions from users. Granting excessive permissions can expose users to unnecessary risks.
The Pros of MAST:
Mobile-Specific Focus: MAST is tailored to address mobile-specific security concerns, ensuring comprehensive testing for mobile apps.
Comprehensive Analysis: It combines static and dynamic analysis, providing a holistic view of mobile app security.
Early Detection: MAST can detect vulnerabilities early in the development process, reducing the cost of fixing issues later.
App Store Compliance: Helps ensure that mobile apps meet the security requirements of app stores.
The Cons of MAST:
Complexity: MAST can be complex to set up and configure, requiring expertise in mobile app security.
Resource Intensive: Mobile app testing can be resource-intensive and may impact the app's performance during testing.
Rapid Development: Mobile app development is often rapid, which may pose challenges for keeping security assessments up to date.
In summary, Mobile Application Security Testing (MAST) is a methodology focused on assessing the security of mobile applications. It addresses mobile-specific security concerns, provides comprehensive analysis, and can detect vulnerabilities early in the development process. However, it can be complex to set up and resource intensive.
Software Composition Analysis (SCA)
Software Composition Analysis (SCA) is a security and compliance process that involves the identification and evaluation of third-party and open-source software components used in a software application. It aims to assess the security and licensing risks associated with these components, ensuring that organizations are aware of and can manage potential vulnerabilities and legal obligations.
SCA is particularly important in modern software development, where the use of open-source components is widespread. It helps organizations proactively manage security risks and compliance requirements, reducing the chances of vulnerabilities or legal issues arising from third-party software dependencies.
Key aspects of Software Composition Analysis include:
Component Identification: SCA tools scan the software codebase to identify all third-party components, including libraries, frameworks, and modules. This process creates a comprehensive inventory of the software's dependencies.
License Compliance: SCA also checks the licenses of the third-party components to ensure that the software complies with open-source license agreements. It helps organizations avoid legal issues related to license violations.
Integration with Development Pipelines: Many organizations integrate SCA into their continuous integration/continuous deployment (CI/CD) pipelines to ensure that security and compliance checks are performed automatically at every stage of software development.
Vulnerability Detection: SCA tools check the components against known security vulnerabilities and provide information about the severity of these vulnerabilities. This allows organizations to prioritize and address the most critical issues.
Automated Scanning: SCA tools automate the scanning and analysis process, making it efficient and scalable, especially in large software projects with numerous dependencies.
Risk Assessment: SCA provides a holistic view of the security and compliance risks associated with using third-party components. It helps organizations make informed decisions about whether to use, update, or replace specific components.
The Role of Third-Party Components:
Third-party components, such as libraries, frameworks, and modules, play a crucial role in modern software development. They enable developers to save time and effort by incorporating pre-built functionalities into their applications. However, these components can introduce potential vulnerabilities for several reasons:
Security Flaws: Third-party components may contain known or unknown security vulnerabilities. If these vulnerabilities are not patched or updated, they can be exploited by attackers.
Lack of Visibility: Developers may not have full visibility into the security of third-party components, making it challenging to assess and manage risks.
Outdated Versions: Developers often use older versions of components for compatibility reasons. These versions may lack security fixes found in newer releases.
License Compliance: Third-party components often come with licenses that must be respected. Failure to do so can lead to legal issues.
The Importance of Component Inventory:
Maintaining a comprehensive component inventory is a critical aspect of SCA. Here's why it's important:
Risk Assessment: An inventory allows organizations to assess the security risks associated with each component in their software.
Vulnerability Management: It helps in tracking vulnerabilities and their impact on the software, enabling organizations to prioritize and remediate them.
Patch Management: With an inventory, organizations can quickly identify and apply patches or updates to vulnerable components.
License Compliance: A component inventory helps in ensuring that software complies with the licenses of the components it uses, avoiding legal issues.
The Pros of SCA:
Vulnerability Detection: SCA tools excel at identifying vulnerabilities in third-party components, helping organizations proactively address security risks.
License Compliance: They assist in tracking and ensuring compliance with open-source licenses, avoiding legal complications.
Automated Scans: SCA tools can automate the scanning process, saving time and effort compared to manual checks.
Visibility: SCA provides visibility into the components used in software, enhancing risk assessment and management.
The Cons of SCA:
False Positives: SCA tools may generate false positives, flagging components as vulnerable when they are not.
Limited to Known Vulnerabilities: SCA tools primarily detect known vulnerabilities, so zero-day vulnerabilities may go undetected.
Complexity: Managing a large number of components in complex software can be challenging.
Dependency Chain: SCA tools may not always trace the full dependency chain, potentially missing vulnerabilities in indirect dependencies.
In summary, Software Composition Analysis (SCA) is crucial for identifying and managing the security risks introduced by third-party components in software. It emphasizes the importance of maintaining a component inventory to assess vulnerabilities, ensure license compliance, and manage patches. While SCA offers many benefits, including vulnerability detection and license compliance, it may have limitations, such as false positives and focusing on known vulnerabilities.
Runtime Application Self-Protection (RASP)
Runtime Application Self-Protection (RASP) is a security technology that has evolved as a response to the limitations of traditional application security testing methods, including Static Application Security Testing (SAST), Dynamic Application Security Testing (DAST), and Interactive Application Security Testing (IAST). Here's how RASP has evolved from these methods:
SAST: SAST primarily focuses on static code analysis to identify vulnerabilities during development. However, it lacks the ability to respond to real-time threats during application runtime. RASP builds on SAST by providing dynamic protection capabilities within the running application.
IAST: IAST combines static and dynamic analysis during runtime but is typically limited to providing feedback to developers. RASP takes this a step further by actively intervening to prevent and block attacks in real-time, making it a proactive security measure.
DAST: DAST is designed to identify vulnerabilities by simulating attacks against a live application. While it offers runtime assessment, it typically lacks the capability to actively protect against attacks. RASP, on the other hand, not only detects vulnerabilities but actively defends against them during runtime.
Use Cases for RASP:
RASP is used for various use cases, including:
Web Application Security: RASP can protect web applications from common attacks like SQL injection, cross-site scripting (XSS), and cross-site request forgery (CSRF) by detecting and blocking malicious requests.
API Security: It safeguards APIs by monitoring incoming requests and responses, ensuring that unauthorized access or data leaks are prevented.
Protection Against Zero-Days: RASP can detect and mitigate previously unknown vulnerabilities and zero-day attacks by identifying abnormal behavior and blocking malicious actions.
Real-Time Threat Response: RASP provides immediate threat response by actively monitoring and protecting applications during runtime, reducing the window of exposure to attacks.
The Pros of RASP:
Real-Time Protection: RASP actively defends against attacks in real-time, minimizing the risk of successful breaches.
Application Awareness: It has deep knowledge of application behavior, allowing it to distinguish between legitimate and malicious actions.
Low False Positives: RASP typically generates fewer false positives compared to other security technologies.
Continuous Protection: It offers continuous protection, even in rapidly changing application environments.
The Cons of RASP:
Complex Implementation: Implementing RASP can be complex, requiring integration with the application and thorough configuration.
Resource Overhead: RASP can introduce some performance overhead to the application due to its monitoring and protection activities.
Limited to In-App Protection: RASP primarily protects the application it's integrated with and may not cover network or infrastructure-level attacks.
Effectiveness May Vary: The effectiveness of RASP can depend on the quality of its configuration and the ability to detect and respond to new and evolving threats.
In summary, Runtime Application Self-Protection (RASP) has evolved from traditional application security testing methods to provide real-time threat detection and prevention within running applications. It offers advantages such as real-time protection and low false positives but requires careful implementation and may introduce some performance overhead.
Some of the key best practices in AppSec Testing are:
Regular Testing:
In DevSecOps, security testing is not a one-time event; it's an ongoing process. Frequent security testing, including Static Application Security Testing (SAST), Dynamic Application Security Testing (DAST), and Runtime Application Self-Protection (RASP), is essential. The OWASP Top Ten Project highlights the importance of regular testing by identifying the most critical web application security risks.
Security of Internal Interfaces:
Internal interfaces within microservices architectures and APIs are critical for modern applications. Ensure that these interfaces are designed with security in mind. Implement proper authentication, authorization, and encryption for internal communications. The NIST Special Publication 800-183 provides guidelines for securing microservices architectures.
Third-Party Code Security:
Modern applications often rely on third-party libraries and open-source components. These can introduce vulnerabilities if not managed correctly.
Implement Software Composition Analysis (SCA) to regularly scan and update third-party components, addressing known vulnerabilities. OWASP's Software Component Verification Standard (SCVS) provides guidance on managing third-party components securely.
The Shift to DevSecOps:
DevSecOps is a cultural and process shift that integrates security into the entire software development lifecycle (SDLC). It emphasizes collaboration between development, operations, and security teams from the outset.
Continuous Monitoring:
Implement continuous monitoring and logging to detect and respond to security incidents in real-time.
Utilize Security Information and Event Management (SIEM) systems and Security Orchestration, Automation, and Response (SOAR) solutions. NIST's Cybersecurity Framework emphasizes the importance of continuous monitoring for detecting and mitigating security threats.
Security as Code (SaC):
Embed security controls directly into code through automation. Implement Infrastructure as Code (IaC) and Security as Code (SaC) practices to ensure security is part of the code deployment process.
DevSecOps practices align with the National Cybersecurity Center of Excellence (NCCoE) guidelines for implementing SaC.
Security Training and Awareness:
Foster a security-aware culture by providing regular security training to developers, operations staff, and other team members. Encourage security champions within development teams to promote best practices.
OWASP offers resources like the OWASP Developer Guide to help organizations educate developers about secure coding practices.
Security Review in CI/CD Pipeline:
Integrate security reviews and testing into the CI/CD pipeline to identify and fix security issues early in the development process. Utilize automated security scanning tools and security-focused code reviews.
The CI/CD Security Top 10 project by OWASP provides guidance on securing CI/CD pipelines.
In conclusion, DevSecOps emphasizes security as an integral part of the software development process. Regular security testing, securing internal interfaces, and ensuring the security of third-party code are essential best practices supported by industry standards and guidelines. These practices help organizations build and maintain more secure and resilient applications in today's threat landscape.
In the realm of AST, Radware solutions offer several unique features and integration capabilities, such as:
Comprehensive AST Suite:
Radware provides a comprehensive suite of AST solutions that cover various aspects of application security, including web application firewall (WAF), DDoS protection, and bot mitigation. This breadth of offerings allows organizations to address multiple security challenges in one place.
Real-Time Threat Detection and Prevention:
Radware's AST solutions offer real-time threat detection and prevention capabilities. This means that not only do they identify vulnerabilities, but they also actively protect applications from attacks, ensuring ongoing security.
Behavioral Analysis:
Radware incorporates behavioral analysis into its AST solutions, allowing for the detection of anomalous behavior and zero-day attacks. This proactive approach enhances security by identifying threats that may not be covered by traditional signature-based detection.
Integration with WAF and DDoS Protection:
Radware's AST solutions seamlessly integrate with its WAF and DDoS protection technologies. This integration enables a holistic security strategy that covers not only vulnerabilities but also the protection of applications against various cyber threats.
Automation and Machine Learning:
Radware leverages automation and machine learning to enhance its AST capabilities. Machine learning algorithms can help identify evolving threats and reduce false positives, improving the accuracy of security measures.
DevSecOps Integration:
Radware supports the DevSecOps approach by integrating security testing into the development pipeline. This ensures that security is considered from the early stages of application development and helps organizations shift security left.
ACompliance and Reporting:
Radware's AST solutions provide features for compliance management and reporting. This is crucial for organizations that need to adhere to industry standards and regulations such as GDPR, HIPAA, or PCI DSS.
Cloud and On-Premises Deployment Options:
Radware offers flexibility in deployment, allowing organizations to choose between cloud-based or on-premises solutions based on their specific requirements and infrastructure.
Scalability:
Radware's solutions are scalable and suitable for organizations of various sizes, from small businesses to large enterprises.